In 1796, Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais (1763-1814), a stylish widow six years his senior who had two teenage children. Two years later, in 1804, he crowned himself emperor of France in a lavish ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. In 1802, a constitutional amendment made Napoleon first consul for life. He centralized the government instituted reforms in such areas as banking and education supported science and the arts and sought to improve relations between his regime and the pope (who represented France’s main religion, Catholicism), which had suffered during the revolution. One of his most significant accomplishments was the Napoleonic Code, which streamlined the French legal system and continues to form the foundation of French civil law to this day. Napoleon worked to restore stability to post-revolutionary France. Additionally, with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, the war-weary British agreed to peace with the French (although the peace would only last for a year). The victory helped cement Napoleon’s power as first consul. In June 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Napoleon’s forces defeated one of France’s perennial enemies, the Austrians, and drove them out of Italy. The Directory was replaced with a three-member Consulate, and 5'7" Napoleon became first consul, making him France’s leading political figure. In November 1799, in an event known as the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon was part of a group that successfully overthrew the French Directory. That summer, with the political situation in France marked by uncertainty, the ever-ambitious and cunning Napoleon opted to abandon his army in Egypt and return to France. In early 1799, Napoleon’s army launched an invasion of Ottoman Empire-ruled Syria, which ended with a failed siege of Acre, located in modern-day Israel. Napoleon’s troops scored a victory against Egypt’s military rulers, the Mamluks, at the Battle of the Pyramids in July 1798 soon, however, his forces were stranded after his naval fleet was nearly decimated by the British at the Battle of the Nile in August 1798. Instead, he proposed an invasion of Egypt in an effort to wipe out British trade routes with India. Napoleon determined that France’s naval forces were not yet ready to go up against the superior British Royal Navy. The following year, the Directory, the five-person group that had governed France since 1795, offered to let Napoleon lead an invasion of England. In 1797, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, resulting in territorial gains for the French.
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In 1796, Napoleon commanded a French army that defeated the larger armies of Austria, one of his country’s primary rivals, in a series of battles in Italy. Since 1792, France’s revolutionary government had been engaged in military conflicts with various European nations.
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This artifact provided the key to cracking the code of Egyptian hieroglyphics, a written language that had been dead for almost 2,000 years. In 1795, Napoleon helped suppress a royalist insurrection against the revolutionary government in Paris and was promoted to major general.ĭid you know? In 1799, during Napoleon’s military campaign in Egypt, a French soldier named Pierre Francois Bouchard (1772-1832) discovered the Rosetta Stone. However, after Robespierre fell from power and was guillotined (along with Augustin) in July 1794, Napoleon was briefly put under house arrest for his ties to the brothers. During this time, Napoleon was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in the army. In France, Napoleon became associated with Augustin Robespierre (1763-1794), the brother of revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794), a Jacobin who was a key force behind the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a period of violence against enemies of the revolution. In 1793, following a clash with the nationalist Corsican governor, Pasquale Paoli (1725-1807), the Bonaparte family fled their native island for mainland France, where Napoleon returned to military duty. During the early years of the revolution, Napoleon was largely on leave from the military and home in Corsica, where he became affiliated with the Jacobins, a pro-democracy political group. The French Revolution began in 1789, and within three years revolutionaries had overthrown the monarchy and proclaimed a French republic. He then became a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment of the French army. As a boy, Napoleon attended school in mainland France, where he learned the French language, and went on to graduate from a French military academy in 1785.
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